Vygotskys Theory of Psychological Development

Vygotskys Theory of Psychological Development Lev Semenovich Vygotsky was born in Russia in 1896, the same year with Piaget. He attended Moscow University and graduated with a degree of law in 1917 just before the start of Russian Revolution (Driscoll, 2005). After a while the Russian revolution where the Marxism replaced, Vygotsky worked in psychology. The new philosophy of the Marxist stressed socialism and collectivism in society. So his views represented Marxist ideas of social change to language and development. Vygotsky also studied various subjects in school such as philosophy, psychology, literature and art. He worked as a teacher at a teacher training institution where he founded a psychology laboratory. His main entry into psychology started with the second Psychoneurological congress in 1924. Vygotsky presented a paper and criticized Pavlovs reflexology theory. After his brilliant presentation performance, Konstantin Kornilov who is the director of Psychological Institute of Moscow University invited Vygotsky for a po sition in university (Gredler, 2005). His dissertation, in 1925,The Psychology of Art, was accepted for the Ph.D. degree. Vygotsky completed manuscripts, articles, and books and edited a journal until his death in 1934 because of tuberculosis. His major writings are about the role of cultural signs and symbols in the development of attention, abstraction, language, memory and reasoning ( Gredler, 2005). Most of his writings were published after his death. His concepts of cultural historical development of cognitive development remained incomplete at his death. After his death some basic concepts fixed with his studies were added his theory. Basic Principles of Vygotskys Sociocultural Theory To understand Vygotskys theory, to look at political environment of his time may be helpful. In 1917, after the Russian revolution, Marxism penetrated all society and emphasized socialism. Sharing between people and co-operating was supported, and the success of any individual was thought as the success of the culture. Marxism also took place on history, believing that every culture could be understood only by examination of the ideas and events that had formed it (Vasta,R., Haith, M.M., Miller,S.A., 1995, as cited in Riddle, 1999). Vygotsky also influenced Marxist theory of social change to language and development (Schunk, 2008). His theory covered these elements in terms of human being development that has been called as a sociocultural approach. According to Vygotsky, the ones development is a result of his own culture and development refers mental development including thought, language and reasoning process. These mental functions were believed to develop through social interactions with people and so represented the shared knowledge of the culture. Vygotksys theory is also a form of dialectical constructivist theory that emphasizes the social environment as a facilitator of development and learning. His sociocultural theory emphasizes interaction between people and their environment. For him, the processes of the human cognitive development are the part of the process of historical development (Schunk, 2008). Briefly, Vygotskys theory is based on the idea that learning begins with social interaction and then knowledge is constructed individually. Vygotskys theory has three basic assumptions. These assumptions are i) nature of human intelligence, ii) biological and sociohistorical lines of psychological development and iii) nature of psychological processes (Driscoll, 2005; Gredler, 2005). Vygotsky thought about the differences between animal and human behavior in terms of psychological development and thought that the behavior of modern cultured adult is the result of two different process of mental development. Firstly, in the human beings, biological factors dominate the early months of life and physical growth is responsible for perception and simple memory, and involuntary attention. The emergence of these mental functions is referred to as primitive development. And sociocultural development is responsible for development of complex mental functions (Gredler, 2005). Secondly, Vygotsky also believed that human mental abilities develop through interaction with the world. Vygotsky investigated how these social interactions turns in to psychological principles In order to explain this phenomenon Vygotsky mention about the terms signalization and signification. According to Vygotskys perspective, a child does not touch a hot stove after putting his hand and feeling pain is an example of signalization (Gredler, 2005). Also, signification process that is a process of assigning meaning to an active stimulus differ human behavior from other animals. These processes are transforming from primitive humans to humans who use signs symbols to change own mental functions. So, Vygotsky believed that psychological development includes the transformation of primitive mental functions to higher mental forms (Gredler, 2005). Vygotsky stated that development does not proceed toward socialization; it is the conversion of social relations into mental functions (as cited in Driscoll, 2005). The social environment influences cognition through its tools such as cultural objects, language and social institutions (Schunk, 2005). According to Vygotsky, humans use tools that develop from the surrounding culture such as speech and writing, to mediate their social environments. So, culture gives opportunities the children with the meanings to, what to think and how to think. Initially children develop these tools to make sense of their worlds as social functions, ways to communicate needs. The tools, cultural signs and symbols, can be technological or psychological. Cognitive change results from; using these tools in social interactions and internalizing and mentally transforming these interactions (Schunk, 2005). Vygotsky also gave importance the emergence of speech in terms of distinguishing humans from other animals. In Vygotksys view, language was the most important psychological tool that influences childrens cognitive development. By acquiring knowledge a child is supported the means to think in new ways and obtains a new cognitive tool for making sense of the world. For Vygotsky, the analysis of thinking and speech was a major task for psychology, and the central problem was the relationship of thought to word (Gredler, 2005). He identified three different stages in childrens use of language. At first, language is primarily used for communication. It refers social speech. For Vygotsky, speech begins to develop independent of thought. And then, thinking becomes verbal and children begin to use egocentric or private speech to guide their own thinking. Both Piaget and Vygotsky observed that as in problem solving situations pre-school children talking to themselves. While Piaget referred th e self directed behavior as egocentric speech, Vygotsky labeled to it as a private speech. He claimed that private speech originated in the childrens interaction with other people and with these interactions; they start to use their parents instructional comments to regulate their own behavior. Private speech such as talking aloud or whispering while performing a task refers speech for oneself. Researches indicated that children tend to increase the amount of self-talk when facing more challenging tasks (Gredler, 2005). Children start using private speech to organize (plan, direct, or evaluate) their behaviors. The use of private speech peaks during  preschool  years and then decreases. For Vygotsky, this decrease with private speech turns first into inner speech and then into verbal thinking. At last stage of language development, egocentric speech becomes inner speech and children start to use inner speech to guide their thinking and actions. The inner speech is speech for one self, not for communication without words (Gredler, 2005). This transition of speech from social to self-directed to internalized reflects the Vygotsky ´s concept of development as a process of internalization. With the internalization of private speech intellectual development that is the path of all higher mental functions occurs. It was described by Vygotsky in his law of the development of higher mental functions. He stated law of the development of higher mental functions: Every function in the childs cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). (Vygotsky, 1978; as cited in Gredler, 2005). Acording to Vygotskys view, development of complex mental functions involves two processes; mastering of the external means of cultural development and thinking (language, counting, writing) and learning to use symbols to master and regulate ones own behavior. Briefly, every higher mental function was external or social before it became an internal mental function. And also Karpov and Haywood stated that; All higher mental processes are mediated by such psychological tools as language, signs and symbols. Adults teach these tools to children in the course of their joint activity. After children internalize these tools they function as mediators of the childrens more advanced psychological processes (Karpov Haywood, 1989, as cited in Schunk, 2008). Mediation is the key mechanism in learning and development from Vygotskys perspective. When mediation becomes increasingly internal and symbolic higher mental functions are created. Vygotsky stated that mediation referred that interposing tools between people and their environment, to modify it and obtain benefits (Schunk, 2005). And also mediators such as tools and language help to people to accommodate to their environment. From Vygotskys point of view, higher mental functions include categorical perception, logical memory, abstract thought and voluntary attention (as cited in Gredler, 1992). These are the products of the sociohistorical development. Vygotsky distinguished the higher mental functions from the primitive mental functions. Primitive mental functions are biological in nature and higher mental functions are the part of the social and cultural heritage of child move from social plane to psychological plane, from interpersonal to intrapersonal, from socially regulated to self regulated, from assisted performance to unassisted performance and from social control to self control (Gredler, 2005). Zone of Proximal Development Zone of proximal development (ZPD) is a key concept for Vygotskys theory. ZPD defined from Vygotsky as the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers( Schunk, 2008; Driscoll, 2005). Briefly ZPD refers the gap between what children can do individually and what they can do with assistance from more knowledgeable person. Also Bruner (1984) stated that ZPD reflects activity in which those who have more knowledgeable or are more skilled share that knowledge or skill to accomplish a task with who know less. Vygotsky claimed that learning occurs in this zone (Riddle, 1999). In ZPD teachers and students work together on a task. With the help of more knowledgeable partner the child can complete a task when he cannot do unassisted. Working in ZPD requires a good deal of guided participation. Learners bring their own understanding to social interaction environment and construct meaning by integrating those understanding with their experiences in the context (Schunk, 2000). Level of performances development shows a change from self regulation to social regulation. Gradually require to the assistance decreases and capacity for self regulation increases. The progress in ZDP is gradual from assisted performance to unassisted and self regulated performance (Moll, 1990). The process in the ZDP described as a stage model which includes four stages which focuses on the relationship between social control and self control. In stage 1 learner has very limited capacity to complete task and parent, teacher or more capable peers offer directions and modeling. Learner response is acquiescent and imitative. Learner gradually understands how related the parts of an activity to one another. Understanding develops with conversation (Moll, 1990). In stage 2, there is a change of mental activity from intermental to intramental. Learners start to handle task without assistance. However, performance is not fully developed. In stage 2, self directed speech reflects development of profound significance. Key mechanism of self directed speech is self regulation (Moll, 1990) In stage 3, assistance does not require and assistance is no longer need. Performance is already developed. Task have been internalized and automatized. Vygotsky described this stage as fruits of development (Moll, 1990). And finally in stage 4, it can be thought that learning is lifelong. However, although a concept can be accomplished by an adult, another concept cannot be accomplished (Moll, 1990). For Vygotsky, teacher direct students while scaffolding process in ZPD and try to provide assistance about how the learner can achieve his goal even without the assistance. A Vygotskian teachers aim is creating self-regulated learners. In Vygotskys theory, role of teachers is to provide the guidance required for learners to bridge the distance between their current skill level and a wanted skill level. Educational Applications There are many educational applications of Vygotskys theory. Instructional scaffolding, reciprocal teaching, peer collaboration and apprenticeship are some of these applications (Schunk, 2008). Instructional Scaffolding Although scaffolding is not a Vygotskian term, in order to it fit nicely in the ZPD, it added by Wood, Bruner and Ross in the theory (Schunk, 2008). Instructional scaffolding is also the process of controlling task elements that are beyond learners capabilities (Schunk, 2008). It is the condition of sufficient support to promote learning. Supports can include some resources, a compelling task, templates and guides and guidance on the development of cognitive and social skills. In scaffolding process, the instructor becomes a supportive tool for the student in the zone of proximal development. The characteristics of an ideal teacher are those of a scaffold: provide support, function as a tool, extend the range of the learner, permit attainment of task otherwise possible, use selectively only as needed (Schunk, 2008; Driscoll, 2005). In short, instructor creates a ZPD and provides the scaffolding for students to be successful (Moll, 2001 as cited Schunk, 2008). Moreover, for scaffoldin g process prior knowledge have an important role for Vygotskain teacher. Because, teacher need to give less assistance if there is more prior knowledgeable person. Reciprocal teaching Reciprocal teaching is an instructional activity that takes place in the form of a dialogue between teachers and students regarding segments of text. Teacher and students take turns assuming the role of teacher in leading this dialogue (Schunk, 2008). The purpose of reciprocal teaching is to facilitate a group effort between teacher and students in the task of bringing meaning to the text. The dialogue is structured by the use of summarizing, question generating, clarifying and predicting (Driscoll, 2005; Schunk, 2008). Peer collaboration Peer collaboration is the notion of collective activity. When peers come together to accomplish a task cooperatively, this social interaction can lead learning. If each student has assigned the responsibility, researches showed that cooperative work is most effective (Schunk, 2008). Apprenticeship Apprenticeship is another application of Vygotskys theory. The purpose of cognitive apprenticeship is to help learners to learn the cognitive processes that experts use to overcome complex tasks through guided experience. While operating in ZPD novices and experts works closely in joint work related activities. For instance, student teachers work with cooperating teachers in schools. It is an example of apprenticeship. Apprenticeship is also a form of dialectical constructivism that depends on social interaction (Schunk, 2008). Critics about the Theory Vygotksky seems social interaction as only way of learning. According to Vygotsky all learning is a social process begins as social activities by interacting with other people and people internalize these processes and can use them independently. But researcher states that as it is known that cultures are critical and needed to be thought while explaining learning it is not only constrained social environment (Schunk, 2008). And it is showed that children learn certain concepts which do not depend on social environment (Geary, as cited in Schunk, 2008). However I agree with Vygotsky in terms of explaning learning from social context to individual context. In my opinion, Vygotskys theory is based on the idea that learning begins with social interaction with other people or environment and then knowledge is constructed individually. Implications of Vygotskys theory are considered by researchers as not clear (Wertsch, as cited in Driscoll, 2005). It is thought that there is no answer to the questions how it is explained the differences between the ZDP of children who have similar history and how it is account for the changing relation between subject and child development. I think the effect of the culture and social environment on learning is important. The culture and social environment affect how children can learn. And also we construct meanings and common shared knowledge of a culture. So we affect and are affected from our culture and history. And our leanings can come from this social environment. But it has still not clear enough to understand learning with only sociocultural theory, and how the teaching should be. Conclusion Although new learning approaches appeared in education, since the earlier in the 20th century Vygotkss sociocultural theory has lost influence on learning. Because Vygotksys theory contributed to development of constructivism with Piaget, Dewey, and Glaserfields theories. Many teachers are still using application of Vygotskys theory such as group works, class discussion or guided discovery consciously or unconsciously. And as Vygotksy claimed children begin to learn in social environment in classrooms with social activities by interacting with other people such as peers or teachers and they internalize these processes and can use them independently. Even though researches showed that children learn certain concepts which do not depend on social environment, the sociocultural approach certainly could not explain all human learning alone. It can explain learning particularly in terms of a social environment. Therefore it is termed as dialectical constructivist theory. To sum up, although there are some criticisms to Vygotksys sociocultural theory, it is clear that the study of human development has benefited from this theory from twentieth century to nowadays. It is clear that although Vygotksys theory remained in complete because of his early death, researchers could not ignore his theorys importance for learning and they developed his theory as we know today.

What is a thesis statement

In regards to a thesis proposal, it is an outline of a research study you do in your thesis or dissertation. To put it simply, a thesis proposal is a road map. It provides a reader with a vision of your future work. Your thesis proposal needs to be carefully planned and properly structured. The better you are at explaining what you are going to research and why the topic you have chosen is relevant, the more rewarding the result will be. Choosing a topic is the hardest part not only in thesis proposal writing, but also in academic writing in general. You should identify the problem you are dealing with in your thesis proposal, as well as state the questions you are going to address in your thesis. You are also supposed to describe all the resources and materials you need in order to conduct a research study for your thesis or dissertation. The successful approval of your thesis proposal means you will be able to continue the work on your thesis. Therefore, the importance of writing a n impressive proposal should not be underestimated. The five most vital points of a well-written thesis proposal include: Outlining; Knowing the structure; Planning the writing process; Writing a thesis proposal; Proofreading a thesis proposal. The first step is to provide a clear and detailed outline. In this part, you are required to present all materials you have already gathered. You need to prove you understand how the process of research works. You also need to demonstrate that you are able to find all relevant sources in regards to the subject you have chosen to research. The next step is structuring your thesis proposal. The common parts of every thesis proposal are as follows: an abstract, an introduction, significant prior research if any, a thesis/project statement, approach, potential outcomes, limitations, and proposed dissertation chapters.

No Country for Old Men

In the novel No Country for Old Men, written by Cormac McCarthy, a perversion of the American dream is presented as the relinquishment of power. Power is defined as the influence one has over people and in McCarthy’s novel he demonstrates three ways to posses this: money, authority, and the ability to strike fear into the hearts of others. Every thing is swallowed by a money-induced apathy lately, leaving nothing else of any importance. Moss, a main character in the novel, uses his new found wealth as a tool to manipulate bystanders into helping him get what he needs.In most cases people are hesitant at first to help this distressed looking man, but as soon as he waves a hundred dollar bill or two there are no more questions asked: Excuse me, he said. Leaning against the chainlink fence. His bloody footprints on the walk behind him like clues in an arcade. Excuse me. They were stepping off the curb into the roadway to go around him. Excuse me I wondered if you all would sell m e a coat. They didnt stop till they were past him. Then one of them turned. What’ll you give? He said. (p. 117)Money is power, and with this in mind many people do not see or simply just do not care about the people who are affected by their action. As long as the outcome has a nicely figured income it is all the same to them. When Llewellyn Moss stumbles across a leather briefcase containing the better part of 2 million dollars, a payoff intended for some Mexican dope-runners, his life takes a turn for the worst. He’s just too dumbfounded to realize. During a shoot out with the opposing parties, two of mosses bullets pierced threw an old woman’s second floor apartment window blowing her brains out on the back of her rocking chair.When Moss is presented with photographs of the woman he denies the fact that he could have ever done this and says, â€Å"You’re full of shit†(p151). How does a man that carries around a shotgun in a duffle bag not believ e he could have killed someone with a stray bullet? The unreal amount of money he posses now blinds him from the cold truth reality has to offer. Power has turned this once sensible man into a reckless killer and a fugitive. This asks the question what good is power if your life is uncontrollably spiraling down the drain.Moss let this power get the better of him and it ended with his death, where as Bell, the Texas county Sheriff, is over powered by the way society is forever changing in the worst ways. He realizes there is not much his authority can do to change the way crime is escalading, but he is still going to give it his best at the end of the day: I read the papers ever mornin. Mostly I suppose just to try and figure out what might be headed this way. Not that I done all that good a job headin it off. It keeps getting harder. (p. 40)It is people like Chigurh that the Sheriff is talking about if not specifically when he says â€Å"They dont have no respect for the law†¦ they dont even think about the law†. This man, whose authority was once well respected by the people, is now just referred to as â€Å"a redneck sheriff in a hick town†(p. 151). Even though he had the law, authority, and a taskforce behind him, Sheriff Bell was never even a threat to anyone in this novel. He lost his power a long time ago. Chigurh, a field worker, is in the business of killing and getting jobs done like the retrieval of stolen drug profit.And thinks of him self as a superior to al of his victims as if they should be thankful he is how he is, he tells one man â€Å" I’m here and you are there. In a few minutes I will still be here†¦if you don’t respect me what must you think of yourself? Look at where you are. † (p. 177). It really just relates back to the animal kingdom. Chigurh is a lion and everyone he has ever killed is a gazelle. If the lion stopped hunting the gazelles they would eventually not fear him anymore and he woul d no longer be kink of the jungle.Chigurh realizes he only has power because of his murders and becomes a slave to them. Even though he doesn’t want to kill Mosses wife he has to, so he try’s to explain â€Å"You’re asking that I make myself vulnerable and that I can never do. I have only one way to live†¦Do you see? † (p. 259) No country for old men sends across the message that Power is not everything it is cracked up to be especially in a bad situation. It comes and goes, but if it is your soul purpose in life to find it, you might just look up from your map and find yourself lost.When moss finds the briefcase he might think he is dream at first but he soon realizes it is more of a nightmare. So does Sheriff Bell, every time he reads the newspaper he thinks back to the way it was when his grandfather was the Sheriff. The only one who has managed to maintain what they consider to be a simple happy life is Chigurh the psychotic killer. So it is real ly left up to you to decide weather or not we are living the dream or trapped in a never-ending nightmare. By Kyle Dunbar No Country for Old Men In the novel No Country for Old Men, written by Cormac McCarthy, a perversion of the American dream is presented as the relinquishment of power. Power is defined as the influence one has over people and in McCarthy’s novel he demonstrates three ways to posses this: money, authority, and the ability to strike fear into the hearts of others. Every thing is swallowed by a money-induced apathy lately, leaving nothing else of any importance. Moss, a main character in the novel, uses his new found wealth as a tool to manipulate bystanders into helping him get what he needs.In most cases people are hesitant at first to help this distressed looking man, but as soon as he waves a hundred dollar bill or two there are no more questions asked: Excuse me, he said. Leaning against the chainlink fence. His bloody footprints on the walk behind him like clues in an arcade. Excuse me. They were stepping off the curb into the roadway to go around him. Excuse me I wondered if you all would sell m e a coat. They didnt stop till they were past him. Then one of them turned. What’ll you give? He said. (p. 117)Money is power, and with this in mind many people do not see or simply just do not care about the people who are affected by their action. As long as the outcome has a nicely figured income it is all the same to them. When Llewellyn Moss stumbles across a leather briefcase containing the better part of 2 million dollars, a payoff intended for some Mexican dope-runners, his life takes a turn for the worst. He’s just too dumbfounded to realize. During a shoot out with the opposing parties, two of mosses bullets pierced threw an old woman’s second floor apartment window blowing her brains out on the back of her rocking chair.When Moss is presented with photographs of the woman he denies the fact that he could have ever done this and says, â€Å"You’re full of shit†(p151). How does a man that carries around a shotgun in a duffle bag not believ e he could have killed someone with a stray bullet? The unreal amount of money he posses now blinds him from the cold truth reality has to offer. Power has turned this once sensible man into a reckless killer and a fugitive. This asks the question what good is power if your life is uncontrollably spiraling down the drain.Moss let this power get the better of him and it ended with his death, where as Bell, the Texas county Sheriff, is over powered by the way society is forever changing in the worst ways. He realizes there is not much his authority can do to change the way crime is escalading, but he is still going to give it his best at the end of the day: I read the papers ever mornin. Mostly I suppose just to try and figure out what might be headed this way. Not that I done all that good a job headin it off. It keeps getting harder. (p. 40)It is people like Chigurh that the Sheriff is talking about if not specifically when he says â€Å"They dont have no respect for the law†¦ they dont even think about the law†. This man, whose authority was once well respected by the people, is now just referred to as â€Å"a redneck sheriff in a hick town†(p. 151). Even though he had the law, authority, and a taskforce behind him, Sheriff Bell was never even a threat to anyone in this novel. He lost his power a long time ago. Chigurh, a field worker, is in the business of killing and getting jobs done like the retrieval of stolen drug profit.And thinks of him self as a superior to al of his victims as if they should be thankful he is how he is, he tells one man â€Å" I’m here and you are there. In a few minutes I will still be here†¦if you don’t respect me what must you think of yourself? Look at where you are. † (p. 177). It really just relates back to the animal kingdom. Chigurh is a lion and everyone he has ever killed is a gazelle. If the lion stopped hunting the gazelles they would eventually not fear him anymore and he woul d no longer be kink of the jungle.Chigurh realizes he only has power because of his murders and becomes a slave to them. Even though he doesn’t want to kill Mosses wife he has to, so he try’s to explain â€Å"You’re asking that I make myself vulnerable and that I can never do. I have only one way to live†¦Do you see? † (p. 259) No country for old men sends across the message that Power is not everything it is cracked up to be especially in a bad situation. It comes and goes, but if it is your soul purpose in life to find it, you might just look up from your map and find yourself lost.When moss finds the briefcase he might think he is dream at first but he soon realizes it is more of a nightmare. So does Sheriff Bell, every time he reads the newspaper he thinks back to the way it was when his grandfather was the Sheriff. The only one who has managed to maintain what they consider to be a simple happy life is Chigurh the psychotic killer. So it is real ly left up to you to decide weather or not we are living the dream or trapped in a never-ending nightmare. By Kyle Dunbar

Women s Role Of Women Within The Pre 21st Century

Sexism; quite the broad topic to discuss upon, but a prominent one regarding femininity and the role of women within the pre-21st century. At the time, women were collectively seen as inferior, and no more than the breeding gender; a sullied-fallible philosophy that oddly propagated itself from primate nature (regarding the evolutionary scheme of things). Conversely, this misogyny would not last with a repertory of political reformations from a hierarchical standpoint to one of far more liberty, equality and fraternity. Throughout this history, myriads of blunt statements, views that degrade the image of a woman, have been made repeatedly by the less intelligent of society. These views have always been contrasted by the women who remained uncaged by their social normalities, brave souls of which have led a reformatory spark in society. Examples span from the pre-common era to modern day, exemplified by women from Medea, to Joan of Arc, to Marie Curie, and the many other examples still continue to endow women with praise. Within Tim O’Brien’s highly acclaimed series of intertwined stories; The Things They Carried, the author truly emphasizes this. More specifically within â€Å"Sweetheart of the Song Tra Bong†-the American novelist illustrates his opinion through an integral character by the name of Mary Anne Bell. Although fitted with a stereotypical image of a woman, through a series of transformations, she acts as a juxtaposition to this with an endowment of traits whichShow MoreRelatedHow The Changes Towards Marriage And Family Life Essay1203 Words   |  5 PagesDuring the pre-industrial revolution (pre-1750) the family unit which existed was the extended family. During that time, the main role of the family was to work together to provide, this included household chores, childcare and economic wellbeing. 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